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The Soyuz MS (; GRAU: 11F732A48) is the latest version of the Russian Soyuz spacecraft series, first launched in 2016. The "MS" stands for "modernized systems," referring to improvements in navigation, communications, and onboard systems over the Soyuz TMA-M series. Developed and manufactured by Energia, it is operated by Roscosmos for human spaceflight missions to the International Space Station (ISS).
Soyuz MS-01, the first flight of the series, launched on 7 July 2016 and docked with the ISS two days later following a checkout phase to validate the new systems. The mission lasted 113 days, concluding with a landing on the Kazakh Steppe on 30 October 2016.
The Soyuz MS spacecraft has been involved in one in-flight abort. During the launch of Soyuz MS-10 in October 2018, a booster separation failure on the Soyuz-FG launch vehicle triggered the automated launch escape system. The spacecraft separated from the rocket and returned the crew safely to Earth under parachutes. The crew landed unharmed. Since April 2020, the spacecraft has been launched using the modernized Soyuz 2.1a rocket.
The orbital and descent modules are pressurized and habitable. By relocating much of the equipment and usable volume to the orbital module—which does not require heat shielding for atmospheric re-entry—the three-part Soyuz design is both larger and lighter than comparable two-part spacecraft. For comparison, the Apollo spacecraft's pressurized command module provided a crew of three with of living space and had a re-entry mass of approximately , while the Soyuz MS offers the same crew of living space with a re-entry module mass of about .
The Soyuz MS can carry up to three astronaut and supports free-flight missions lasting approximately 30 person-days. Its life support system provides a nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere similar to that of Earth, with air pressure equivalent to sea level. Oxygen is regenerated using potassium superoxide (KO2) canisters, which absorb most of the carbon dioxide (CO2) and Water vapor exhaled by the crew and release oxygen. Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) canisters are also used to absorb residual CO2.
In addition to the crew, Soyuz MS can carry up to of payload to orbit and return up to to Earth.
The spacecraft is protected during launch by a payload fairing with a launch escape system, which is jettisoned once the vehicle exits the dense layers of the atmosphere. Soyuz MS is highly automated; its Kurs system enables automatic rendezvous and docking with the ISS. Manual control is possible in the event of system failure.
It has three hatches: a forward hatch for docking with the ISS, a side hatch for crew ingress and egress during ground operations, and an aft hatch connecting to the descent module. In principle, the side hatch could be used for spacewalks by sealing the other hatches and using the module as an airlock, although this capability has never been used on the MS variant due to the availability of larger dedicated airlocks on the ISS.
In microgravity, the orbital module's conceptual orientation differs from that of the reentry module, with crew members positioned with their heads toward the forward docking port. A small forward-facing window allows the flight engineer to visually assist the commander—who pilots the spacecraft from the reentry module—during manual docking if the automated system fails.
The module can accommodate over of cargo at launch and is typically filled with up to of waste before being jettisoned prior to re-entry where it will burn up in the atmosphere.
The orbital module can be customized for specific mission requirements without affecting the safety-critical systems of the descent module. Compared to earlier Soyuz versions, it incorporates additional anti-meteoroid shielding.
The reentry module is designed for high volumetric efficiency (internal volume relative to hull surface area). A spherical shape would be optimal but offers no lift, resulting in a fully ballistic reentry, which is difficult to steer and subjects the crew to high g-forces. Instead, the Soyuz uses a compromise "headlight" shape: a hemispherical forward section, a shallow conical midsection, and a spherical heat shield, allowing limited lift and steering. The nickname derives from the resemblance to early sealed beam automotive headlights.
The instrumentation compartment is a pressurized container housing systems for power generation, thermal control, communications, telemetry, and attitude control. The propulsion compartment contains the main and backup liquid-fueled engines for orbital maneuvers and deorbiting. Low-thrust attitude control thrusters are mounted on the intermediate compartment. Solar panels and orientation sensors are mounted externally on the service module.
About 30 minutes after the deorbit burn, as the spacecraft passes over the Arabian Peninsula at an altitude of roughly , the three modules separate. Only the descent module, which carries the crew, is designed to survive reentry; the orbital and service modules burn up in the atmosphere. To ensure successful separation under all circumstances, the spacecraft uses a four-tiered backup system: two automated commands, a manual override, and an emergency thermal sensor triggered by rising reentry temperatures.
The descent module reenters the atmosphere at an angle of approximately 1.35°, generating some aerodynamic lift to reduce g-forces compared to a purely ballistic trajectory. In the event of flight control or attitude system failure, the capsule can revert to a ballistic descent, and crews are trained to withstand the higher loads associated with it.
At around altitude, atmospheric drag rapidly decelerates the spacecraft, and reentry heating causes the ablative outer layers of the shield to burn away. Plasma forms around the capsule, temporarily interrupting communications with ground stations. The onboard flight control system can adjust the capsule’s roll to fine-tune its trajectory.
Parachute deployment begins at about altitude. Two Pilot chute deploy first, followed by a drogue chute that slows the spacecraft from , followed by the main parachute which further reduces the descent rate to . At approximately altitude, the heat shield is jettisoned, exposing the soft-landing engines, an altimeter, and a beacon light. Cabin pressure is gradually equalized with the outside atmosphere.
At an altitude of about , the altimeter triggers the solid-fuel braking engines, reducing impact speed to under . Each seat is equipped with Shock absorber and a liner custom molded to each crew member's body shape to cushion the final impact. In the rare case of a landing under a backup parachute, descent speeds may reach , but the descent module and seating systems are designed to remain survivable.
After touchdown, the main parachute is released to prevent the capsule from being dragged by the wind. The module may land upright or on its side. Recovery beacons and transmitters activate automatically. If needed, the crew can manually deploy additional antennas. The spacecraft's autonomous navigation system (ASN-K) also transmits real-time position data via satellite to assist search and rescue operations.
Soyuz landings are conducted in flat, open areas without major obstacles. Thirteen designated landing zones in Kazakhstan meet these criteria. Mission planners typically schedule landings during the spacecraft’s first or second orbit of the day, as it moves from south to north. Most landings occur at twilight, allowing recovery teams to visually track the brightly lit capsule against the darkening sky. Since Soyuz began servicing the ISS, only a few missions have landed at night.
If the capsule lands in remote terrain far from the recovery teams, the crew has access to a portable survival kit. This includes cold-weather clothing, a medical kit, a strobe light, a handheld radio, a signal mirror, matches and firestarter, a fishing kit, and a semi-automatic pistol—intended for protection against wildlife such as wolves or bears.
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